Ch 3 The Brain

Motivation and the brain are two interlinked things. There are very many different parts of the brain that create responses that trigger a person’s motivation. In this chapter, the focus was on the different parts of the brain and how they can affect a person’s motivation. Each different part has its’ own set of triggers and these triggers cause us to act a certain way towards certain situations. The chapter also discussed how dopamine could have different effects on actions and rewards as well.

One concept I found to be quite interesting was motives. Motives are our reason for doing the things we do, but most of the time we cannot give a clear explanation as to why we chose to do what we did. Of course we can give you a list of reasons as to why we are doing what we are, but those reasons are sometimes not even clear to the person. I want to understand more about this concept and how even though we are doing the action we cannot fully explain why we are doing it. If we don’t really know why we are doing it then why are we even motivated to continue the activity?
One concept I am still trying to understand better is the prefrontal cortex and how it affects personality. I understand the idea that a person is left-lobed or right-lobed, but what I do not understand is how this is determined. Is a person born automatically with this already pre-determined or is it something that is determined as they grow up depending on their environment. Also brings up the thought to if these can change or if it is a permanent thing.

I want to learn more about motivation and social context. There was only a brief paragraph in the book about it and for me I would love a deeper understanding of this concept. I would like to know if social contexts motivate all people the same way or if the context can create different motivations for different people. The reading stated that the brain is stimulated in different environments and that these stimulants are natural. With that being stated, it would lead me to believe that all people react the same yet I also believe that this is not the case at all.

My understanding of motivation has been clarified some but it does still seem quite puzzling. I understand that our environment and the way events affect us can change our motivation for certain things. The concept that has changed for me was how many different parts of the brain go into creating our motivation or lack of motivation for certain actions. I knew the major parts such as the hypothalamus but there are so many other parts. I now understand why it can be so hard to give a set definition to motivation because there are so many different factors that come into play. I see motivation as more of an internal concept now instead of more external.

Terms:
Motives
Dopamine
Prefrontal cortex
Social context motivation

Chapter 3 took us on a journey to explore the more physical aspects of motivation within the brain. As opposed to talking about sociocultural or philosophical motivations of people, it focused upon the biological causes of our behaviors and our motivations. It began by stressing the importance of the brain in motivation and explained briefly how researchers looked at the brain’s functions in terms of motivation and emotion. It went on to explain which structures (the Limbic System & Prefrontal Cortex) took part in and how they took part in approach and avoidance behaviors. During this section, two structures within the realm of decision-making (Anterior Cingulate Cortex & Orbitofrontal Cortex) along with one structure that aids in bodily and cortical arousal (Reticular Formation). The chapter then progressed to discussing neurotransmitters and their influence on the motivational and emotional system of the brain. Great focus was centered upon dopamine and how it’s pleasurable affect could drive animals/humans into certain motivated behavior. The chapter finished up by discussing hormones that greatly influenced motivation and prepared us for the chapters to come, in which more focus would be placed upon the effect our environment has upon our motivations and emotions.

There were several points that I learned along the path of reading this chapter. Miscellaneous vocabulary lessons dotted the reading, as I had to look up several undefined words (tonus, hedonic) that I had no prior experience with. Particularly, the most interesting bit of information I found was the part regarding personality dimensions on page 61 under the “Prefrontal Cortex and Affect” section. The left-right division of the brain has several influences on how our mind works. My introductory psychology courses had given me the basic understandings of this division (IE: one is more spatial, the other more analytic). However, this chapter pointed out that this division had an affect upon which emotionality you were biologically orientated towards. As a summary, the left prefrontal lobe generates more positive emotions and approach-oriented feelings (the Behavioral Activation System (BAS)) and the right prefrontal lobe generates more negative emotions and avoidance-oriented feelings (the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)). So, if a person is more right-brain asymmetrical (like myself, as I took the BAS/BIS test in Table 3.2 on page 62), they are more naturally inclined to be negative and take an avoidance route to stimuli. On the opposite end of the coin, those who are asymmetrically left-brained tend to be more positive overall and take an approach route to stimuli.

The most confusing aspect arose in the “Liking and Wanting” section on page 67. The chapter explains that liking is “hedonic,” and can mimic information to motivate behavior in comparing choices. So, if I’m understanding this correctly, I like chocolate chip cookies. Therefore, when comparing the choice between getting a chocolate chip cookie and a regular sugar cookie, the fact that I previously ate and liked eating chocolate chip cookies would come up as information in influencing my choice. It then goes on to say that wanting can occur without liking even happening, such as an addict wanting their drug while not necessarily enjoying it anymore. The exact phrase the book uses is, “…as sometimes people can want what they do not necessarily like.” (Reeve 67). This confused me a little, but only because I was trying to think of other examples outside drug abuse. The nicotine and drug habits make sense, because as you grow more used to the drug, the dopamine release decreases and your pleasure from the drug (the liking) decreases. However, as a dependent on the drug you still have that urge to take the drug to avoid withdrawal and other negative effects (the wanting). I tried to come up with my own silly examples to understand this further. My best one was going to the dentist. You may not necessarily want to go get your teeth and gums prodded, but the threat of possible gum disease or tooth decay gives you that want to go to the dentist. (?)

The one thing that I’d say I’d like to learn more about would be the above Likes and Wants, since I’m assuming my understanding of it is a bit off. I know it seems kind of a cheating move to say the same thing for two different answers. However, I have a decent understanding of most topics presented in this chapter after reading it, and this small topic seemed to dupe me. Therefore, I feel it’s only fair to say that I’d like to learn more about it so that I can better understand it. Also, I’d like to touch more on how experience shapes your likes and wants as time progresses. For example, I used to LOVE Oreos in my childhood, but one day I guess I just had one too many because I haven’t eaten them ever again. Any time I’m in the store and weighing which kind of cookies to get, my “liking” bias weighs my answer against Oreos every time. That and the “want” for Oreos has completely disappeared, so my body doesn’t even unconsciously skew me towards them.

My understanding of motivation has been changed because I really am bad when it comes to biological perspectives. It’s mostly due to my first psychology teacher who a complete student of the psychological viewpoint, so Freud and the unconscious answered seemingly every question. She would present biology as the simple man’s answer and that it had no real presence in psychology today. You can then imagine my surprise when this Motivation and Emotion book, along with my Abnormal Psychology book and even the DSM-5 bring up these theories of multi-faceted causes to disorders and behaviors. My entire foundation of understanding psychology given to me back in high school was essentially incorrect, and I had to add on several perspectives that I had once either discredited or flat-out ignored. Now I understand that there are certainly biological bases. Our brain as a physical entity plays a huge role in what drives us to do certain things and approach/avoid certain events/stimuli. Hormones and neurotransmitters are essentially the lifeblood of a good chunk of motivation and behavior, considering they literally allow us to control the movements to achieve what we desire. But, because of that little high school teacher I’ll have in the back of my head, I also understand now that, as the book states in Chapter 2, merely throw all our eggs into one Grand Theory. We must understand that psychology is a fluid science, and that many intertwined factors produce our actions, behaviors, and problems.

Terms used:
Grand Theory – Pg. 26
Limbic System – Pg. 53
Approach/Avoidance Behavior – Pg. 54
Orbitofrontal Cortex – Pg. 56
Anterior Cingulate Cortex – Pg. 59
Reticular Formation – Pg. 59
Prefrontal Cortex – Pg. 61
Behavioral Activation System – Pg. 61
Behavioral Inhibition System – Pg. 61
Neurotransmitters – Pg. 62
Dopamine – Pg. 63
Liking – Pg. 67
Wanting – Pg. 67
Hormones – Pg. 67

The brain is also the center of motivation and emotion, not just a cognitive and intellectual function. To understand these processes, motivational researchers use the three main principles. Specific Brain Structures Generate Specific Motivations, Biochemical Agents Stimulate Specific Brain Structures and Day-to-Da Events Stir Biochemical Agents into Action. fMRI is the “Golden Standard,” to looking inside the brain. fMRIs work by detecting or measuring changes in blow flow. So when one area is getting more blood flow than others, we know that the area is doing something important. The hypothalamus regulates important biological functions like eating, drinking, and mating. These are things that we can’t normally can’t control like heartbeat or hormone secretion. It it a key part in motivation, even though it only compromises less than 1% of the brain. The Medial Forebrain is a large collection of pathway-like fibers that connect the hypothalamus to other limbic systems like the septal area, mammillary bodies,the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens. The nucleus accumbens is the reward or pleasure center of the brain, so the Medial Forebrain is part of that. The amygdala reacts to events that are either good or bad. It generates emotions like anger, fear, and anxiety. It is also important in recognizing the emotions of others through facial expressions. The Prefrontal Cortex or PFC contains a person's conscious goal, so one goal could be the goal to eat vs the goal to lose weight. The right PFC generate negative and avoidance-oriented feelings, while the left PFC generate positive, approach-orientated feelings.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers, sent through the central nervous system, like dendrites, axons, and myelin. Dopamine, commonly known as the feel good neurotransmitter. Dopamine could lead to emotional positivity, and could lead to enhanced functioning like creativity. The ventral tegmental area is responsible for the release of dopamine into other brain sites. Dopamine released can be foreshadowed by incentives, stimuli that may deliver rewards trigger the release of dopamine. Dopamine can also be released by the use of drugs, especially psychostimulants. Cocaine, heroin, amphetamine, alcohol and nicotine can cause dopamine sensitivity.
Hormones are integral to motivation and emotion, with the big three being cortisol, testosterone, and oxytocin. Cortisol is often called the “stress hormone.” Most commonly activated during social-evaluative events, like an audience watching you during a performance. Elevated cortisol has been associated with poor intellectual functioning, negative affect, and poor health outcomes. Testosterone, known as the steroid hormone is associated with high sexual motivation, and encourages competition of mating. Something I found interesting was that married men have lower testosterone than do unmarried men. Oxytocin is the bonding hormone, and is an important hormone-based source of motivation for women.
The social world offers an environment full of supports for and threats against these needs. It can be warm which supports our well-being, or it can be too cold or too hot and threaten our well-being. The brain determines the motivational and emotional states we need to adapt to optimally to the world around us.
Terms: Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Medial Forebrain, Dopamine, Cortisol, Oxytocin.

The take home message I got from this chapter is that there is an interplay between biological mechanisms and motivation which contribute to our understanding of what drives human behavior. The relationship between our biology and motivation are summed up in three principles: 1.) specific brain structures generate specific motivation 2.) certain biochemical agents stimulate or suppress those brain structures, and 3.) environmental events kick those biochemical agents into action. This can represented in a model like such:

Env event → Biochemical agent → Brain structure → Motivation arousal
Dieting → Ghrelin → Hypothalamus → Hunger

The most surprising aspect of this chapter is that dopamine is more associated with reinforcement than it is with the epiphenomenal experience of pleasure. I also enjoyed how much it went into detail about the dopamine system, such as how the release of dopamine actually happens before the reward is received and sets you up to act. I also found it interesting that the amount of dopamine released in anticipation is proportional to the amount of reward actually gained. Therefore if you get more reward then you expect, more D is released, and on the flip side, if you get less reward than you expected, less D is released. This makes it very easy to understand how we learn to become motivated to do things that are rewarding. One of my favorite quotes from the chapter is: “The objects that brings us pleasure are those with dopamine-dependent history that has established that particular object or event as a reinforcer.”

One thing I would like to learn more about is the prefrontal cortex and how the PFC and cognitions play a role in behavior. This chapter focus a lot on how old brain structures and unconscious instincts drive behavior and less on how our thoughts influence it.
That said, I do understand how much we appreciate how our brains and bodies regulate the things we do and why. Although we have conscious language-based motivations originating in the PFC (“I will go to the gym, because I want to be healthy”) we are more often than not guided by our limbic system and our unconscious urges, appetites, and wants. You may actually be motivate to go to the gym because your muscles have been little used and your hippocampus is telling you that is not okay, or maybe because your dopamine system is anticipating the reward of the “runner’s high”.

The other big takeaway from this chapter is that we do things for a lot of other reasons than what we plan to do or think we’ll do. And some things we may not even have reasons for doing, but we do them anyway. A couple examples are given in the book: people tend to help strangers if they have recently been given or gift and baseball players tend to hit the opposing team more with their bats when it’s hot. But can you imagine someone who helped a stranger say it was because someone recently gave them a gift? I can’t. According to this chapter, it’s the product of biological and social mechanisms, which are vital in understanding motivation and emotion.

Our brains are extremely complex. So complex that it proves difficult to describe all of the functions of the brain. The brain, of course, does far more than just carry out cognitive and intellectual functions. It is the hub for motivation and emotion. Chapter 3 explains motivation and emotion from both biological and physiological perspectives. Specific structures within the brain respond to various stimuli and then proceed to release hormones and neurotransmitters accordingly. These hormones and neurotransmitters are responsible for altering our mental and physical states. The two primary hormones discussed were testosterone and cortisol, as testosterone is the hormone which has the greatest influence on sexual motivation and cortisol being the stress related hormone. The chapter discussed the neurotransmitter dopamine thoroughly and elaborated on how pleasurable events lead to increased levels of dopamine, which make us feel good and associate such an event with happiness and pleasure. The chapter concluded by preparing us for the coming content on how the environment influences our motivation and emotions.

The information that confused me the most was the concept of wanting and liking and how they are similar but yet different. It makes sense to me that in order to experience full pleasure one must experience wanting and liking in conjunction with one another, but what exactly the definitions of wanting and liking are is what confuses me. According to the text, liking is a motivational state which occurs after a reward is received and wanting occurs prior to receiving said reward. In my mind however, my thought is that I can like an expensive sports car and have never received any type of reward which caused me to like the sports car. Unless the visual pleasure I receive upon viewing the fancy car is my reward? I am still unsure on the definitions of these two terms.

However difficult it may be, I would enjoy learning more about how we are not always consciously aware of the motivational basis of our behavior. It is fascinating to learn about why we as people may go about doing what we do, but to learn about how we can not always explain why people do certain things is also very interesting to me. Sort of unexplainable behaviors make me wonder what sparks them into action. How do we develop the capacity to perform specific behaviors without even giving the behavior itself any of our conscious energy? This question boggles my mind.

My understanding of motivation and emotion has been expanded upon due to analyzing Chapter 3. Learning that we feel hunger due to ghrelin being regulated by our hypothalamus and feeling satiated when leptin is released by our digestive tract was interesting. These two hormones make us either seek out food or carry on with the feeling of a full stomach. All of the body’s hormones can alter our motives and emotions depending upon each of their balances. Learning the brain structures and their associated motivational or emotional experiences was very helpful (Table 3.1). This allows us to better pinpoint which regions of the brain are responsible for certain urges and feelings. Overall, Chapter 3 has helped me pair biological and physiological terminology to particular emotional and motivational responses.

Key Terms:

Liking
Wanting
Dopamine
Ghrelin
Leptin
Cortisol
Testosterone

This chapter was all about the brain, its structures, and how they influence motivation when stimulated. As the events in the environment change, the brain reacts and releases hormones and neurotransmitters that can put the body into a motivational state. The first important region of the brain that was discussed in this chapter was the hypothalamus. This brain structure regulates many functions, such as eating, drinking, mating and the pituitary gland, as well as the autonomic nervous system. Depending on the environment, the hypothalamus is responsible for arousal or relaxation of the body. The next structure discussed was the medial forebrain bundle, which when we look at motivation, is the “pleasure center” in the brain. The orbitofrontal cortex is a brain structure that is active when an individual is comparing and considering their options. Another important structure discussed was the amygdala, which is responsible for processing emotional information. More brain structures were discussed in this chapter, as well as the different neurotransmitters. Dopamine is a major neurotransmitter that has an influence on motivation. This neurotransmitter is responsible for generating good feelings and rewards. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter associated with mood and emotion regulation, and norepinephrine influences arousal and alertness. These neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that communicate within the brain’s central nervous system.

One thing that I found surprising in this chapter was when it was discussing how dopamine activates voluntary goal-directedness approach responses. I always understood dopamine as the “pleasure” and good feeling neurotransmitter, but never considered how that would affect motivation. It is interesting to learn that not only does it generate positive feelings but also increases goal-directed responses. One piece of information that was confusing to me was that we are not always aware of our behaviors motivational basis. The chapter discussed how motives can vary in how accessible they are to the consciousness, which I find confusing. Why is a person motivated to perform a certain behavior if they are unaware of their motivation for it? This concept is somewhat confusing to me and I am curious more about how motivation’s origin can be somewhat unconscious to the individual.

Something that I read in the chapter and what to know more about is the liking and wanting motivational states. I find it interesting how these are separate motivational states, one being before a reward and one being after a reward. Liking can influence motivation, and a person can experience wanting without liking. These are interesting concepts to me. I also am curious how this is associated with addition, and how an addict may be in a wanting motivational state, but not a liking motivational state. My understanding of motivation has changed by reading this chapter because now I have better knowledge of how the brain works when being motivated, such as what brain structures do what and what different neurotransmitters represent. I think this knowledge can help an individual understand their own motivational behaviors and others, because it can help them understand things like dopamine and its influence on good mood.

Hormones (p.53)
Neurotransmitters (p.53)
Hypothalamus (p.54)
Medial Forebrain Bundle (p.55)
Orbitofrontal Cortex (p.56)
Amygdala (p.57)
Dopamine (p.63)
Serotonin (p.63)
Norepinephrine (p.63)
Liking (p.67)
Wanting (p.67)
Addiction (p.66)

This chapter covered the brain and how it is involved in the process of motivation. Though there are many parts coming together to form emotions, these emotions drive us and keep us out of trouble, or keep us alive. Since the brain does all the thinking, it is receiving the signals for what emotions it should develop. Without it we would cease to function. This chapter covers the structural and procedural makeup of the brain that responds to emotion, and drives motivation. There are structures that release neurotransmitters which tell other structures what they should do, which when it gets to the top, drives our emotion. Like an engine, each little part makes the whole thing work. Dopamine was a focus, because it is the pleasure transmitter. When something good happens, dopamine is released, which makes us want to do it again. This is how the brain teaches the body what is good and what it should repeat doing. On the flip flop, cortisol is the stress hormone, which when released makes us avoid certain things or hurry past them. We do not feel good when cortisol is high, which teaches us what to avoid, like dangerous situations.
The most surprising part to me was how much of the brain is focused on pleasure centers. Dopamine makes us feel good, so releasing it tells the body what it did was a good thing. We are constantly being fed dopamine as a mean to keep our motivation up. When something good happens, dopamine is released. The greater the event, the more the dopamine. This can lead people into addiction, because they will always be chasing a higher high, which leads to addiction.
Some information that was confusing to me was the social aspect of motivation. There are so many variables that affect every single decision, it is hard to follow how the brain can deal with all of these inputs. There are different motivators, and demotivators in the environment. At work or at school someone may be pushing to do better, or they may be completely deflated and have given up on trying.
One thing I would like to learn more about is avoidance behavior. The brain can tell the body what is a threat before it even realizes it, which can be sometimes overused. Many people have stage fright, or hate public speaking. These seem like normal activities but the brain seems to interpret them as threats. Learning more about why could teach people how to recognize the way their brain is responding, and work to change it. Public speaking is a very good skill, and many people do not have it (including me).
My understanding of motivation has changed from learning about how the mind is not always consciously aware of how it is being motivated. Outside stimuli affect us in different ways, but throughout the day people may not realize they are being motivated at all, let alone by responses in their brain. If you ask someone why they did something, they could give an answer, but for tasks that do not matter they may not be able to pinpoint a reason why they did what they did; they just did it.

Terms:
Neurotransmitter
Dopamine
Cortisol
Addiction

Chapter three was all about how our brains are essentially the “main hub” of our motivations and emotions. The book identified that different brain structures act when specific motivational states are stimulated, stimulation or damage to an area of the brain could increase or decrease motivational states, and that specific brain structures are stimulated by biochemical agents, such as a neurotransmitter or hormone. I did not know that the current gold standard for examining the brain is an fMRI, but when the book explained why this was the best way to truly know where motivation and emotion occur, it made more sense. The fMRI is the most practical for looking into the brain because along with taking images of the brain, researchers can stimulate the brain in certain ways. For example, if someone has not eaten in 14 hours and they undergo an fMRI, researchers can see which part of the brain is stimulated for the desire for food. If researchers make the participant very happy, the fMRI will show which part of their brain is being used. The book also went over different structure in the brain. This included approach-oriented structures, such as the hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, and the orbitofrontal cortex. Along with approach-oriented structure, the book listed avoidance-oriented structures, like the amygdala, and arousal-oriented structures, such as the reticular formation. I think the book did a really good job of informing about neurotransmitters and hormones and the difference between the two.
The information that was most surprising to me was that there are so many different oriented structures of the brain (approach, avoidance, and arousal). I took biopsychology where we talked about some of these areas of the brain in relation to addiction and genetics so it was surprising to me that many of these areas also aid in motivation and emotions. I was also surprised that people that show more activity in their right prefrontal lobe score higher on the BIS items and are more sensitive to punishment, negative emotion, and avoidance-oriented behavior while people who show greater activity in their left prefrontal lobe score higher on the BAS and have more sensitivity to reward, positive emotion, and approach-oriented behavior. When I took Psychology of Personality, we talked about the BIS and BAS and how it relates to personality. In general, I was most surprised about how many different systems are used in motivation and emotion.
The information most confusing to me was, again, the oriented structures of the brain just because there are so many that I am unfamiliar with. However, I would like to learn more about the parts of the brain and their relationship with motivation and emotion. I would really like to learn more about the Septo-Hippocamal Circuit and how that circuit uses all of the structures included in it. Finally, I would like to learn more about neurotransmitters and hormones and which ones are used to create motivation. I know the four main neurotransmitters are dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and endorphin and that the three main hormones include cortisol, testosterone, and oxytocin.
My understanding of motivation has changed in that I can understand a little more of the “Why?” people do the things they do; because that is how their brain is wired. For example, the reason someone is motivated to inject themselves with a drug is because of the dopamine release that makes them feel good. Students who have a lot of tests coming up could do poor on the exams because their cortisol levels are influencing their intellectual functioning.
Terms:
Neurotransmitter, hormone, fMRI, approach-oriented structure, avoidance-oriented structure, arousal-oriented structure, hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, reticular formation, septo-hippocamal circuit, dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, endorphin, cortisol, testosterone, oxytocin

Chapter 3 was all about how the brain related and functioned in terms of motivation and emotion. It talked about how different structured of the brain can help motivate or not motivate people to do things. The parts of the brain that influence motivation are the hypothalamus which regulates lots of biological functions such as eating, drinking, etc.; the medial forebrain bundle which is a collection of fibers that connect the hypothalamus to other structures like the septal area, mammillary bodies, and the ventral tegmental area. This area of the brain is where pleasure is created; the orbitofrontal cortex is the part of the brain that helps people make decisions; the amygdala is associated with feelings of fear, anxiety, anger, etc.; septo-hippocampal circuit is made up of the septal area, nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, fornix, thalamus, hypothalamus, and mammillary bodies. The septo-hippocampal circuit has to do with the emotions that we feel as we are waiting for upcoming events; the anterior cingulate cortex helps with our moods on a daily basis; the reticular formation is involved in arousal; the prefrontal cortex and affect have to do with the behavioral activation system as well as the behavioral inhibition system. Chapter 3 also talked a lot about dopamine and how it plays a big role in reinforcement and motivation.

The information that was the most surprising to me was the section on dopamine. The book stated that when we do something that we enjoy, the pleasure does not come from the actual act itself. The pleasure comes from the anticipation of the reward of doing something we enjoy which causes a release of dopamine. I knew that dopamine had the effect to make you feel better and happier, but I did not know that it was the anticipation of a possible rewarding act that caused dopamine to be released. I thought that dopamine was released during and after the activity and that is why it boosted your mood. The book talks about dopamine explaining the experience of reinforcement. As we try new things and as we enjoy these new things, we will release dopamine in anticipation of doing these things again and this gives us the sensation of positive reinforcement. Drugs that are psychostimulants are major reinforcers when it comes to dopamine. Addictive drugs make the brain more sensitive to the reaction of dopamine release more than any other “normal” activity.

I am kind of confused on how the other structures of the brain influence motivation and how they all tie together. I can read it on paper but as many times as I read it I am still unsure. Mostly on how the different types of motivation are influenced by the different parts of the brain. Are some stronger than others? Are there some that occur more than others? Do any occur at the same time? If they do occur at the same time are they all positive or negative? Can you have some good and some bad occur at the same time? If so, which one “wins” in the competition of motivation?

The effects of dopamine on motivation and emotion is something that I would like to learn more about. More specifically the effects of dopamine on our subconscious motivation. I know it says that we have motivations that are unknown to us but I want to know if there are ways to figure out what these unknown motivations are. As well as is there a pattern between the things that subconsciously motivate us and the kinds of activities that we are subconsciously motivated to do.

My understanding of motivation has changed in a sense that I have more of an understanding as to why there are so many sources of motivation for the things that we do. There are many different brain structures that cause us to have as well as not have motivation to do things. The concept of motivation is slowly becoming clearer and yet it is also getting a little blurrier.

Key terms:
Hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, septal area, mammillary bodies, ventral tegmental area, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampal circuit, nucleus accumbens, cingulate gyrus, fornix, thalamus, septo-hippocampal circuit, reticular formation, prefrontal cortex, dopamine

What I found to be most interesting was that the brain has no pain receptors, which makes sense because surgeons can do surgery where the patient is awake. I just always thought that the surgeon delivered a topical pain-killer. I also thought that fMRI’s are interesting. How they detect the change of oxygen in blood to create a video of a persons’ moment-to-moment brain activity during a motivational or emotional event. I am also interested in the amygdala and how much it controls and regulates. It detects and responds to threatening situations, regulates fear, anger, and anxiety. Since it controls fear, it would make sense that we also learn to fear through the amygdala as well. Another thing I found to be interesting is that our world acts as a natural stimulator for our brains motivational processes. Walking around campus, you might see someone with coffee and decide that coffee sounds good to you.
Some information I found confusing is that we are not always conscious about our motivational biases for our behavior, and that some behaviors are impulsive and it is unclear why we do them. An example I can think of for this is your coworker made a really good lunch and put it on the fridge and you just take it without thinking. You knew it was your coworkers but you just wanted it. So one thing I would like to learn more about is the limbic system and how it controls our unconscious motivations.
My understanding of motivation and emotion is clearer now than it was before the semester started. There were some things that I already knew due to taking biopsychology last semester, but it was a nice little review. I already knew that neurotransmitters are chemical messengers. It makes sense that dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in motivation because it generates good feelings and usually people like feeling good. So a person might go the local animal shelter to volunteer for a work function or for class credit, but then do it weekly because feeding and playing with the animals makes them feel good. Serotonin influences moods and emotion. If a person who worked really hard on a proposal for work got told by the boss that the proposal looked like it was thrown together in one night and not very good, then the employee might feel sad. If that person is sad, they might not feel motivated to want to go out with their friends or go do anything that they usually do when they are in a good mood. Endorphin is the neurotransmitter that inhibits pain, fear, and anxiety. If you had a bad experience giving blood one time, like the needle fell out and blood was gushing everywhere, then you might develop a fear of needles. So then the next time you have a doctors appointment and they tell you that you have to get some shots, you might feel some anxiety about going. That fear of needles is rational, but it is unlikely that routine shots will hit a vein and blood will start going everywhere. That negative emotion overpowers rational cognitions.

Terms: Brain, fMRI, limbic structures, amygdala, neurotransmitters, chemical messengers, dopamine, serotonin, and endorphin

In this chapter we learned how the brain has an effect on motivation. We first learned about the specific areas of the brain, then we learned how these areas are stimulated by specific stimuli, and then hormones are released. These hormones are all responsible for different things, for example testosterone is a hormone that plays a great role in sexual motivation. This is an example on how certain hormones provide us with motivation for different aspects.

What I found to be most interesting was learning more about the hormone Dopamine. I have always known that dopamine is released by neurotransmitters when we enjoy something or we find pleasure. I did not ever think about it being so important when it comes to motivation. When we feel motivated we feel good which would makes sense that it is Dopamine being released and giving us this feeling of satisfaction or accomplishment. I still find the structures of the brain and what it is they are used for to be confusing. I think that is just because there is so much to memorize that it makes it difficult to remember which part of the brain is responsible for what. This would also be the area I am interested in learning more about. I think that learning about all of these structures, how they connect to one another, and then how they influence our motivation and emotion will be very interesting to learn about. In other classes you just learn that this part of the brain is responsible for this and that is why you do this. However, in this class since we are focused on two main things, these being “motivation and emotion” it will be easier to go more in-depth on our understanding of all of this and how it works as a unified circuit. I wouldn’t say my understanding of motivation and the brain has changed a whole lot, besides the fact of knowing that dopamine plays a huge roll when it comes to motivation. I also learned through this reading that our brain does all work as one big unit and each part plays a role in almost everything we do. Learning that there are many reasons to why we do something is quite important. At the very beginning of the chapter it explained that our brain not only cares about what task it is we are about to perform but it also cares about whether you want to do it and what kind of mood you have while doing it. I think that was a very nice way of beginning the chapter and helps you understand the brain and motivation.

Hormones
Testosterone
Dopamine
Neurotransmitters
Wanting
Stimulation

There was a point made within just the few first pages that was mentioned saying that the brain is not only a thinking brain but also the center of motivation and emotion. (P.49) The brain is the main control center when it comes to doing all different sorts of task and not only does the brain control what you do it also knows if it’s something you want to do which goes along with motivation and our drives as a person. The brain is one of the biggest factors when it comes to deciding anything. Before anyone choses or does a task, the brain is what processes it and tells your body what to do. The book also talked a good chunk about what we are consciously aware of when it comes to motivation. There are different levels in which we are aware of motives. For instance, when it comes to goals even though we may not always be thinking about them all the time they are there in our minds and we can know about them subconscious and remember what our goals are. If your goal is to lose weight you may not always be thinking about losing weight but within your motives you know that you want to watch what you eat as well as exercise and more. The other portion of the textbook was over all the different functions of the brain as well as neurotransmitters. A part that interested me from this part of the book was the different techniques like surgery and fMRI that are brain structures that of the main key structures related to motivation and emotion. Some of the functions within the brain that surprised me most was one being the hypothalamus not only is it one of the smallest parts taking up one 1% of the brain but it is one of the most important structures when it comes to its functions. It controls eating and drinking and other important functions this goes to show that no matter how small the feature may be that doesn’t mean its small in importance. The next that also deals with motivation is the medial forebrain bundle it is now as the pleasure center in the brain. This part of the brain acts as though it has been treated with positive reinforcement which makes the animal do what it does. Another piece of the brain that is related closely to emotion and motivation is the Amygdala. The Amygdala is what detects and responds to threatening emotional significant events. Meaning that it leads to the body have emotions such as fear or panic or sadness when it comes to reacting to an event. Another function within the brain that also deals with reacting to different emotions is the Septo-Hippocampal Circuit. The part of the brain can forecast the emotions dealing with anxiety and pleasure. I believe that over all even though they are not brain functions that neurotransmitters also play a large role in emotion and motivation within the brain. They are the messages within the body that go through the brain passing on what needs to be done. The brain is a very complex feature and to think that it controls all our needs, wants and behaviors is being amazing.

Terms:
- Motivation
- Brain
- Emotion
- Drive
- Hypothalamus
- Medial Forebrain Bundle
- Amygdala

Chapter three went into depth about how the brain plays a role in motivation. The chapter talked used the example of dieting and how our ghrelin levels cause us to be hungry, but a person who is dieting would not think about their ghrelin levels when they feel hungry. The brain has many structures within itself and those structures play different roles in motivation and emotion. Approach-oriented structures typically give off pleasurable feelings and reinforce behaviors making one want to do more of those behaviors. Avoidance-oriented structures are often ones of withdrawing or have more negative feelings toward experiences. Arousal-oriented are those associated with states of arousal. Neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and endorphin are ways of understanding motivation and emotion. Like mentioned in the chapter, dopamine has to do with feelings that are often more rewarding and pleasure. Lastly, different hormones play roles in motivation and emotion as well like cortisol, testosterone, or oxytocin.

One thing that was really surprising to me was learning that the brain doesn’t have any pain receptors. This is really interesting though because someone could be having open brain surgery but be awake and not feel anything. I don’t think I could do that because it would weird me out too much to have my brain cut open while I’m awake but the fact that this is possible is actually cool.

Another topic that surprised me was how relationships can affect testosterone levels. Testosterone levels are lowest when men are married compared to unmarried and even when in a committed relationship compared to being single. This is then interesting because the chapter talked about how having higher levels of testosterone are more associated with affairs but having lower levels of testosterone are more associated with good parenting. I suppose this shouldn’t be too surprising because testosterone levels drop as men get older, but I still found it interesting.

The BIS and BAS personality dimensions were a little confusing to me. What makes a brain sensitive to different emotions and why is one side of the brain more sensitive to certain emotions than others?

I would like to learn more about the amygdala and other avoidance-oriented structures. The chapter had talked about how the imbalance of the amygdala explains how negative emotions and overpower cognitions in the brain. I would like to see how this affects certain mental disorders that have negative emotions and see the way the cognitions in the brain are overpowered.

Understanding how the brain plays such a big role in motivation and emotions has changed the way I view it. I never would have thought much about how certain hormones, like ghrelin, could stimulate my body and thus make me motivated to do something, like eat. I’ve always just thought that I haven’t eaten much, which is why I’m hungry, so I’m going to eat. That’s something I don’t have to give much thought to, so I found it really interesting to learn that the brain plays a much bigger role in underlying motivations for physiological needs.

Terms:
BIS
BAS
Brain
Pain receptors
Dopamine
Testosterone
Amygdala
Neurotransmitters
Hormones
Approach-oriented
Avoidance-oriented
Ghrelin

Chapter 3 discussed the innerworkings of the brain and how those mechanisms are motivation. There are three principles that guide the research on brain under the motivation and emotion context. They are as follows: certain brain structures produce certain motivational responses, hormones and neurotransmitters stimulate the brain structures, and events outside of the brain that flow from the environment release the neurotransmitters. There are many parts of the brain such as the amygdala or the reticular formation. Activation in these structures create motivation states such as fear and alertness. These structures release chemicals into the body which interact with the environment and are caused by the environment which in turn create a motivation state.
It was surprising that animals’ pleasure centers were discover by accident. One simple mistake created a whole new body of research. Dopamine is a very complicated neurotransmitter. It is involved it so many more functions than I originally thought. Not only does it encourage pleasurable responses, it is involved in incentives and rewards. It is incredibly interesting that without dopamine, we would not find anything attractive and would have no reason to pursue those things. Dopamine also plays a huge part in learning. Actions are reinforced by a release of dopamine, proving the action to be rewarding, and we are therefore motivated to recreate the action to experience the same feeling.
It would be interesting to learn more about hormones. I know about a few hormones, but I have no deep knowledge of them. Hormones are hugely responsible for many emotional states and actions that occur within the body. Hormones play a part in memory and pleasure. They are everywhere in the body and the brain; they are highly important to proper brain functioning. Learning more about hormones would help to develop a deeper understanding to the brain’s mechanisms. It would also be interesting to learn more about the amygdala. It regulates much more than I knew, such as processing other peoples’ facial emotions. It also helps with associating emotions with objects and situations in our environment. There is so much to the amygdala and it would be interesting to study it in depth.
This chapter reinforces that motivation is not just some theoretical, unexplainable, force that drives people to act the way they do. Motivation is thoroughly backed by scientific explanation and can be watched through processes such as the fMRI. It is easy to assume that certain parts of the brain are responsible for certain things and that’s it. My schema of the brain is that it is sectioned and quartered in an orderly way and each part has a specific function. This chapter has helped to illuminate a growing change that has been developing over the years in my thought process of how the brain functions. This chapter has specifically highlighted that brain functioning works side by side and many parts of the brain can help to regulate the same function. Motivation is very complex, and every single part of the brain works together to motivate and regulate emotions.
Terms:
Dopamine, Incentive, Reward, Hormones, Neurotransmitters, Amygdala, Reticular Formation, Motivation, Pleasure Center, Emotion, fMRI

When people think about the brain, they usually think about the cognitive and intellectual functions, but they are forgetting a key part of the brain. The key part many people forget is the motivation and emotion side of the brain. This aspect of the brain “generates cravings, appetites, needs, desires, pleasure, and a full range of emotions” (Reeve, 2009). There are three key motivational and emotional roles which are played by “three approach-oriented structures (hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, and orbitofrontal cortex, two avoidance-oriented structures (amygdala and hippocampus), the prefrontal cortex, which is associated with both approach and avoidance motivation, and one arousal-associated structure (reticular formation)” (Reeves, 2009).
The textbook also talks about how neurotransmitters like dopamine affect motivation. Dopamine affects motivation by generating good feelings. There are two types of dopamine when it comes to motivation, dopamine release and incentives and dopamine release and reward. Dopamine release and incentives is the “stimuli that foreshadows the imminent delivery of reward, which triggers dopamine release in the brain” (Reeves, 2009). Dopamine release and reward which means that “dopamine release teaches us which events in the environment are rewarding” (Reeves, 2009). Other topics in the textbook include how addictions, hormones in the body, and affect motivation and emotion and how we aren’t always aware of the motivational basis of our behavior.
The information that I found interesting and would love to learn more about when it comes to motivation and emotion in the brain is the impact social context has on motivation. Before reading this chapter, I thought that your environment and your surroundings like your social circle defined your social context and never thought that the brain had such a significant role with creating the social context. I never knew that we can use the brain to create social environments as natural stimulants to the motived and emotional brain” (Reeves, 2009). I am very excited to learn more about social context and how it “provides natural stimulations that stir the motivated emotional brain into action.
What surprised me the most was that even though we can give motives to explain our behavior, we aren’t always conscious when it comes to the motivational basis of our behaviors. I always thought that we are always consciously aware of the motivational basis of our decisions even if the decisions were quickly thought of. I thought it was very interesting that pitchers in the MLB are more likely going to intentionally hit a batter from the opposing team when the weather is hot. The most interesting thing about this fact is that the pitcher is consciously unaware of why they threw the ball intentionally at the opposing player. This is another topic that I would love to learn more about!

My understanding of motivation has changed now that I have learned some of the biological/physiological bases of it. Before reading the chapter, I knew the brain had a significant role when it came to motivation and emotion, but didn’t know how big of a role it had and that there are so many various parts of the brain that have significant impact on our motivation and emotion. I thought this was a great chapter that was very interesting and informational!
Hypothalamus
Medial forebrain bundle
Orbitofrontal cortex
Avoidance-oriented
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Approach-oriented
Arousal-associated structure
Reticular formation

Chapter 3 focuses on how the brain is the center of motivation and emotion. We learn that there are different brain structures that, when stimulated or damaged, can increase or decrease specific motivational states. We have neurotransmitters and hormones that stimulate specific brain structures. Day-to-day events can also stimulate the motivated and emotional brain (pg. 50). Researchers use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to show brain activity during a motivational or emotional state. By using this technique, researchers can tell which parts of the brain are stimulated motivation and which parts are stimulated by emotion (pg. 53).
I was most surprised by how much of the brain is associated with motivational or emotional experiences and which structures are approach-oriented, avoidance-oriented, or both. I have learned about the different structures in the brain in previous classes, such as biopsychology, abnormal psychology, and human anatomy and physiology, but I never related them to our motivational and emotional experiences. Three approach-oriented structures in the text are the hypothalamus, medial forebrain bundle, and the orbitofrontal cortex. Two avoidance-oriented structures in the text are the amygdala and the hippocampus. The prefrontal cerebral cortex is associated with both approach and avoidance motivation.
The most confusing part about chapter 3 to me was the section about the Septo-Hippocampal Circuit. This was my first time hearing the term. I understand that it “forecasts the emotion associated with upcoming events in terms of both anticipated pleasure and anticipated anxiety” (pg. 58), but how does it do it? What happens within the limbic circuit and the cerebral cortex interconnections?
With that being said, I suppose I would like to learn more about the structures within the limbic system that make up the septo-hippocampal circuit. I would like to learn more about the “okay-not okay” control mode and how anti-anxiety drugs affect the not-okay mode of the septo-hippocampal circuit.
My understanding of motivation has expanded tremendously after learning about the biological and physiological bases of it. I knew we had neurotransmitters acting as chemical messengers and hormones in our body to regulate our organs, but I was unaware of the many different types and their specific functions. The hormones, neurotransmitters, and the structures in the brain work together to guide our motivation and emotion, without us even realizing it.

Terms Used:
Neurotransmitters
Hormones
Approach-oriented
Hypothalamus
Medial forebrain bundle
Orbitofrontal cortex
Avoidance-oriented
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Limbic circuit
Cerebral cortex interconnections

Chapter three spends the majority of its contents and how the brain specifically responds to our motivations and emotions. The brain is made up of many different parts with each having their own specific functions also influencing our motivation and emotions. We have proof of which parts of the brain are activated and when from new brain imaging techniques such as fMRIs. This chapter explains some hormones and neurotransmitters and importance such as dopamine being one of the most influential and important. For each person these different systems may vary in different ways and a persons differed life experiences can vary as well.
What was most surprising to me was learning about all of the different neurotransmitters and hormones and how they work together to influence or motives and or emotions. Dopamine is what makes us want to do something usually for survival instincts and what makes us feel good. The more things we engage in that we enjoy, the more dopamine that our brain produces greatly influencing our emotions and our motivations to do these things. This neurotransmitter is also usually most involved in addictions or addictive tendencies. The dopamine reward system works together to make someone to keep wanting and liking something. Serotonin’s role is to regulate our moods and how our emotions are affected. Norepinephrine regulates our adrenaline when we are aroused which cause us to also be alert. Endorphins help to relieve any pain that we may feel also providing a sense of euphoria. There are some hormones mentioned that also have an influence on our emotions and our motivations. One of them is oxytocin which is released when you have feelings of bonding, love, and warmth. Cortisol is another one which regulates the stresses the we come into contact with and testosterone which motivates our sexual drives. It is so interesting how all of these play a role in how and why biologically and psychologically our emotions and motivations are influences day to day.
Something that I would like to learn some more about with clarification would be the role that our psychological thoughts and cognitive processing has on our motivations and emotions. Obviously the biological stuff is very important, because it teaches us how it happens internally and how it is projected outward. It is known that our basic built in drives are hunger, thirst, and sex which a lot of these neurotransmitters and hormones explain such as dopamine and testosterone. There has to also be a way that the thoughts that we have and how we cognitively make decisions could also influence the biological tendencies as well. I would also like to learn more about how some people’s brain activity and hormone levels differ from others and how that can have different influences overall.
My understanding of motivations has changed, because I never really thought a lot about how much of an impact the biological aspects have on how we humans operate. Without our hormones or neurotransmitters, we would not have any drives or have much of any emotional regulation. It is hard to believe that there are so many different hormones and neurotransmitters that all have their own different functions and structures that work together to make up or motivations and emotions. There are also the different brain structures such as the prefrontal cortex controlling impulsivity and decision making, the hippocampus for memory, the amygdala for emotional behavior, and so many more to name. It is almost too much to process that there are so many things, just biologically and physiologically that help us to understand the underlying mechanisms explaining what motivates us and our emotions.

Terms:
Neurotransmitters
Hormones
Motivation
Dopamine
Emotion
fMRI
Liking
Wanting
Addiction
Oxytocin

Chapter 3 emphasized the importance to understand that our motivation and emotions derive from the activity of the brain. It is not simply a center of thought and other intellectual functions. Rather, it also generates the motivation and emotions of the individual. The chapter described it as sort of a chain reaction. The first event being day-to-day events, hormones, or neurotransmitters that in turn stir biochemical agents which stimulate different structures of the brain and finally, depending on which structure is stimulated, determines which motivational and emotional state is activated. I found the rest of the chapter to be sort of explaining this chain reaction process and showing how different structures activate certain states. Chapter 3 also explained different ways we can look at the brain such as surgery, and technological ways such as MRI’s.
This was an interesting chapter to read because I am currently taking biopsychology and so far, we’ve learned the part about different areas can cause different motivations and such, but we haven’t really gone in depth yet about which specific areas cause which and so forth like this chapter has. I’m eager to see how else it overlaps and hope that one class can further help me understand the other and vise versa.
One of the most surprising things to learn from this chapter was the different structures of the brain and which areas they influence in motivation and emotions. It was interesting to see how there are approach-oriented structures such as the hypothalamus and medial forebrain bundle, and also avoidance-oriented structures such as the amygdala and hippocampus. The chapter either didn’t seem to explain arousal-oriented structure as often or I just didn’t understand it but that was an interesting concept as well. It’s fascinating to learn about all the different factors of how the minor differences in our structures of the brain when regulating our motivation and emotions contribute to making us different from one another in our personalities.
One thing I found confusing was the fact that there are many different structures associated with pleasure. I suppose I always thought of it as a singular yet complex emotion, but it turns out there are different associations with pleasure such as eating, reinforcement, and sexuality. One example I found confusing, along with some of my classmates from what I’ve seen, is the liking vs wanting. The text describes it as part of two different brain mechanisms, although we generally think of them as the same thing. One comes before an award and one comes after. Although, I found the example of how if they don’t coexist, it can result in not getting the full pleasure experience. Nicotine addiction, as the text explains, can be one of these “half pleasure” experiences, since it’s wanting without liking. The part of all of this I found confusing was why is a concept such as pleasure, comprised of being part of different brain mechanisms? I understand that it is now, I just don’t understand how the brain came to be like that and hopefully this will be cleared up to me throughout the course.
This was a very helpful chapter in explaining the true powerhouse in driving our motivation and emotion. Many people think it is this unimaginable concept that we can’t explain. However, it’s the brain and through surgeries and technology, we can see with the naked eye just how these different structures impact our day-to-day actions.
Terms:
Hormones, Neurotransmitters, Approach-oriented, Avoidance-oriented, MRI, Hypothalamus, Medial forebrain bundle, Amygdala, Hippocampus, Addiction

When taking biopsychology, I remember learning that the inner part of the brain is known as the “old brain” and that the outer part of the brain is known as the “new brain”. Chapter 3 also confirms this knowledge, but in a different light. Chapter 3 discusses that the subcortical part of the brain is known for controlling humans’ basic impulses, which tend to keep us alive. Some of these impulses are hunger, fear, reward, and wanting. The types of impulses that occur in our inner brain are usually unconscious and are somewhat impulsive. The cortical part of our brain deals a lot with the activities that develop a sense of “self” in a human. The outer cortical part of the brain can deal with beliefs, plans, goals, and are often times controlled. Chapter 3 goes into great detail about the multiple cortexes which lay within our subcortical and outer cortical regions of our brain.

The information that I found to be most surprising when reading was the box on page 68 in the book that discusses antidepressants alleviating depression. Statistically, 1 in 4 people in the United States suffers from mental illness. This article goes more in-depth stating that 1 in 10 people suffer from clinical depression. I knew that the most common diagnosis of mental illness was anxiety and depression, but seeing a statistic and knowing that many people are affected is eye-opening for me. It is important to know why people suffer from clinical depression and ways to alleviate symptoms through medication options. The article goes on to talk about ways to decrease suicidal side effects of antidepressants, which is drugs that produce neurogenesis.

The information within the text was not confusing but was very content heavy. Before reading this chapter I was unaware that the human brain holds 16 structures that all play a part in motivation and emotion in the brain. While reading the text, it was difficult to not get things messed up, or try and “overlap” the different areas. I found it most interesting to read about the insula, which helps monitor the body’s gut-feelings that humans tend to produce when feeling a sense of uncertainty, and a sense of self.

While reading this chapter, I was happy to see more than the amygdala listed as the only cause of motivation and emotion. Up until this point in my psychology career, I have only learned in courses about the importance that the amygdala plays in emotion, but now have a better understanding on the other 15 areas in the brain as well.

Motivation
Subcortical
Cortical
Amygdala
Insula
Depression

This week’s chapter focused on the brain’s role in motivation and emotion. Throughout the chapter, the author discussed different parts of the brain that were connected to its effect on motivation and emotion such as the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. They also discussed different ways that researchers or doctors can see these areas work (fMRI) and intentionally affect them with stimulation or medication. Lastly, the author makes a point not underestimate the importance of social context on motivation and that we are not always aware of the motivational basis for our behavior. Throughout this reading, there were several points that I found surprising, confusing, and really interesting that I will discuss further in this blog comment.

This chapter was generally very surprising for me because it seemed to explain things I have experienced but had never associated with the inner workings of my brain. Due to this, covering everything I found to be surprising would really just be a summary of the chapter. Instead, I will focus on two points that kind of clicked with me when I read them. First, I was really surprised by the explanation of why negative emotions can be so overpowering. The author explains that the amygdala communicates with many areas in the brain but only a few of those areas communicate back. This makes it difficult for more rational parts of the brain to quiet intense negative emotions. This was surprising because it put my past experiences into perspective and explained the irrational overwhelming sensation that some negative emotions can have. Similarly, the role of the hippocampus in determining “okay” and “not okay” modes. The hippocampus compares current information with expectations and goes into one of these two modes based on the outcome. When the outcome matches the expectation, the septo-hippocampal circuit stays in “okay” mode but if the opposite is true, “not okay” mode is activated and creates an anxious motivational state. I have experienced these modes on several occasions and it always seemed like a personal decision to enter that anxious state when really the hippocampus was motivating my emotions.

When considering what I found confusing in this chapter, the most obvious one was how all of these things can occur in my brain simultaneously without being consciously aware of it. These motivations, emotions, and behaviors seem like conscious decisions when, in reality, they are being driven by biological changes in our brain. This was overwhelmingly confusing and effected how I thought about my every action throughout reading the chapter. A specific piece of information from the text that I found particularly confusing was the example of how the amygdala changes personality. The author explains that some people have their amygdala removed to help with epileptic seizures but it changes their personality. I wondered why anyone would remove such an important component of their personality to cure seizures. The exchange rate seems off balance and a last resort if other options are available.

The two things I am most interested in learning more about from this chapter are how and why antidepressants work and how to become more aware of the biological components of motivation and use them to my advantage. Firstly, as someone who experience depression and takes medication, I had never considered how or why it worked before reading this chapter. The special section on anti-depressants was intriguing and led me to want to do more research on the area and the medication I take, specifically. Also, and I believe one of the articles on this blog post refers to this, I want to understand how I can use this information to improve my motivation.
Overall, this chapter was incredibly interesting and prompts me to consider these points in more depth. This new awareness of the biological/physiological bases of motivation lead me to feel more aware of the micro changes that could be going on in my brain at any moment. Strangely enough, this knowledge makes me feel less in control of my motivations but also makes these things more accessible by grounding them in something tangible like the brain.

Terms:
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Hypothalamus
fMRI
Stimulation
Septo-hippocampal circuit
Epileptic seizures

Our brain is the most important organ for the human body to be able to perform complex tasks. With the use of complex nerves and cells, the brain is what develops our motivation and emotions, and that is what the primary focus of what this chapter focused on. Chapter three takes a deeper look into the brain functions and explains why each section is important. Along with the functions, the chapter emphasizes on how scientists have mapped out the brain and have determined what specific area of the brain creates which particular emotion. They also explained how the emotions are activated and lastly how our everyday actions cause our brain to create such emotions.The brain is so much more complex than we give it credit for. The brain is the engine behind every decision we make. The chapter explains that it is because of the brain that we develop certain cravings, desires, and pleasures (and much more) in our everyday lives that we often don’t think about.

After reading the chapter there was some information that had surprised me. I was very surprised by the exact function or purpose of the cerebral cortex. I had always heard the importance of the cerebral cortex but I had no idea the actual function of it. The chapter explains that it is simply, regarding emotion and motivation, what causes us to make plans, map out certain goals that we make for ourselves, and also creating our intentions to do things or feel certain ways. Along with the cerebral cortex, I found that the section regarding dopamine release and reward to be very interesting. I thought it was very interesting that dopamine release is also what teaches us that a reward is coming when perform certain tasks.

Information that I would like to have the chance to learn more about would be information regarding liking and wanting. The chapter includes enough information to where I have a good understanding, but I would like to look deeper into it. Another topic that I would enjoy learning more about would be the section in the chapter that mentions addiction to drugs. I understand that the enhancement and large amount of dopamine stimulation and how the psychostimulants can cause a hyperstimulation where an aftermath that lasts for years, but I would love to learn more about that chemicals within the drugs that cause such a severe level of addiction. I would like to take a deeper dive into the a way that certain drugs are more addictive to others and why exactly people get addicted so easily when they are not as prone to addictive behaviors.

Overall I can solidly say that I have a better understanding of what exactly goes on in our brains that cause us to behave in a particular way. I think that this chapter did a good job of elaborating on certain areas that we often forget, or oversee, have an impact on the emotions and level of motivation we have developed to perform certain tasks. Biologically, the chapter broke it down to its basic form. Physiologically I can say that I definitely have a better understanding as well.

Terms:
Cerebral cortex
Motivation
Emotion
Dopamine
Addiction
Psychostimulants
Hyperstimulation

In chapter three, topics vary from structures within the brain such as the hypothalamus and amygdala, to neuro transmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine, and also discusses how humans are not always aware of the motivation behind their behavior. All three of these topics are extremely complicated; however, I will do my best to summarize each subcategory thoroughly and accurately.

Firstly, this chapter mentions several structures in the brain such as the hypothalamus, which is a miniscule part of the brain, less than one percent, but is responsible for biological functions such as eating, drinking, and reproduction. Another small but critical portion of the brain is the amygdala. This almond shaped structure in the brain is responsible for regulating emotions and motivation; the amygdala also acknowledges and reacts to threatening and emotional situations. If damage is caused to the amygdala, personality changes may occur. This is significant because there is no external motivation for the change of the behavior, the behavior is now biological.

Several neurotransmitters work together in the brain in order to send messages throughout the brain. A few neurotransmitters include, but are not limited to, dopamine and norepinephrine. Dopamine is present in the brain constantly; however, certain events such as winning a race would release more dopamine than usual in order to create a euphoric sensation. What I found most surprising in this chapter dealt with dopamine and addiction. Drugs such as cocaine, heroin, and alcohol release large amounts of dopamine into the brain giving the user a “high” or “elevated” feeling. This feeling can become addictive; people can, in theory, become addicted to the feeling of dopamine being released into their brain in large amounts.

A section of this chapter which confused me lies under the heading “Motivation Cannot Be Separated from the Social Context in Which it is Embedded”. This is also a portion of the chapter which I would want to learn more about. This section confuses me because it states, “brain researchers conduct studies to artificially stimulate and change the animals’ motivation state” and the it declares “the individual’s motivational sate cannot be separated from the social context in which it is embedded. Does this mean that researchers have tried to separate the motivational state from the social context in which it lies but they were unsuccessful? I would also like to learn how they attempted to artificially stimulate and change the animal’s motivational state.

Now that I know more about some of the biological and physiological bases of motivation, my understanding of motivation has altered slightly. Previously, I believed an event occurred and then there was a reaction. Now, I know there are several internal factors, such as a lack of dopamine, and several external factors, such as being frightened, which attribute to a person’s behavior and/or actions.

LIST OF TERMS

Addiction
Amygdala
Behavior
Emotions
Hypothalamus
Neurotransmitter
Norepinephrine
Motivation
Structure